The perception as a heart of art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The perception as a heart of art - Essay Example This research will be required philosophy of art and aesthetics inside artwork as well as the scholastic discussion, which relate with visual perception, cognitive science and cognitive psychology outside artwork, and some experiments composed of ongoing low-relief canvas work and others, which can provide diverse features of surface. Through this methodology, It will be questioned what is the position of artwork and medium as a visual signifying process and how this 'documental surface' can be reflected into the two-dimensional artwork. Art has been a focal point for a variety of cultures since the history of time. It is an expression of how a race or a group of people perceive themselves in relation with the world around them. In this context, an important premise remains the fact that art is born from within and from influences that come from the outside. This paper is based on the fact that western culture has had an immense influence on the way art is perceived. A bench in a park well reveals the relation between simple visual response and recognition. Although this is actually made of stone, with a texture, color, pattern and other characteristics of real wood, it can be perceived as a wooden chair. Therefore, in some points of view, perceiving something as a wooden is taking the 'documental surface' 1 connected to internal value of wood. This pattern of accepting process converted with visual and perceptible feature generally and flexibly at the same time. Similarly, they indicate how artworks have been applying to the limitation, which has similarity between making and recognizing artwork. Recently noticeable thing is that certain interactional participation is distinguishing in this kind of visual specialty. These positions can be exemplified by the following premises. Conventionalizing information such as image, event and phenomena visually is natural formulation, and it appears characteristic connected to the conventional process and method. Additionally, these information are accepted by diverse medium which can observe something instead of direct eye and can be explained better by 'external characteristics' 2 of media itself. Lastly, these two features- conventionalization of information and surface feature of media compositely participate in making artwork and conversely interact as well. Background of Study It is said that the way something is built has a large bearing on how it is perceived. In the case of art, the use of mass media has accentuated the play of technology to the extent that the very way that an art form is conceptualised depends on the factors that are a part of the culture surrounding it. Since 1985, the play of mass media has begun on a note that has created the scope to create art beyond what has been seen in the conventional sense. The rise of technology has been accentuated by the west. Technology has come from the west and is associated with the west. Thus, an important premise here is that most of world sees western culture as an amalgamation of technology along with an ethic that is associated with the same. (Brown, 2005; P 2 - 6) Communication forms in the form of electronic, print and other media has had a major role in

Health Disparities in Uninsured Americans Essay Example for Free

Health Disparities in Uninsured Americans Essay According to (Kilbourne, Switzer Fine, (2006), Health disparities are significant differences that are needed and viewed clinically and statistically in health care and health outcomes. These differences between groups of people can affect how often an illness(disease) have group affects, the number of people who have gotten sick and how many times do this particular disease or problem ends up with death occurring. There are a number of populations that can be affected by health disparities. ( Felton, (2013). Some of these differences are: Ethnic and racial minorities Rural area residents The elderly, children and women People with disabilities. (Medline Plus.com., (2013). Health disparity can also be defined as differences of populations in health care access, environmental exposures, health status, quality or utilization and outcomes involving your health. Health disparities are related generally to social issues and healthcare systems. The worldwide web coming in existence in the mid 1990s also can lead to health disparities since some ethnic groups would not be able to afford the internet. One of the objectives of Healthy People 2010 was to provide more internet services to the home. (Gibbons, (2005). Since this study will be a quantitative study it will focus on the total number of uninsured or underinsured Americans who didnt have health insurance by the end of 2012. Another focus of this study will be coming up with possible solutions to this growing trend in healthcare. In this study we will also seek to discover how the uninsured or underinsured individuals or families are being effected positively and negatively by gaining feedback from these individuals. There are several ways to obtain this feedback for this study in which we will be conducting surveys and questionnaires to get the answers we need. These ways are: the reasons why they do not have insurance to determine how this may affect their access to care, to determine whether the cost of care is directly affecting the reason why these individuals may not be insured and in this study we need to try to find the problems, come up with solutions and look for ways to get rid of any barriers to persons so that they can find affordable health care policies. Since the Affordable Care Act of 2010 is in effect we need to study how the introduction of a new healthcare law to totally replace the healthcare system that has been in place for years will effect uninsured and underinsured Americans. According to the article by (parkdatabase.org.,(2012). For the surveys we will be conducting our survey samples will be coming from males and females  who are American citizens, all races or ethnic groups, 200 participants will be equally divided by gender. In order to cover a wide variety of people that are being effected by health disparities in quantitative research usually will require a large sample size in order to quantify the research. (Felton, 2013). Background of the Study There are several factors that join together populations to influence someones health and health status which results into health disparity. According to the Healthcare Fairness Act of 2000 House Resolution #3250, populations that have health disparities suffer from numbers that are significant as it relates to the total rate of incidence of disease, mortality, survival and morbidity when compared to the population in general. The most contributing factor to health disparities most often mentioned when watched in the United States population is Socioeconomic status (SES). Other factors related to health disparities include: physical and cultural environment, lifestyle, working and living conditions, and community and social networks. Socioeconomic status can be defined as how persons, households, families, and aggregates and census contracts as it relates to the size to consume or create goods that our society values. (Shavers, (2007). The quality of healthcare experienced by our patients may be related to issues of disparity, socio-environmental determinants of health, practice variation, and substandard of care as scientific evidence seemed to show by the late 1990s. (Gibbons,(2005). Since Disparities in the United States can be caused by rather a mixture that is complex, historic injury intertwined with problems with access along with systematic quality. Health disparities have many sides which include ethnicity, status, geography and race. For policymakers it is critically important to give meaning to the problem in the correct way to make sure any solutions that are goal-related will be able to address the solutions reached. The goal is to provide health security for everyone no matter what your socio-economic characters are. Even though the United States goal is to completely get rid health  disparities there will be efforts to become a part of a broader effort to change health care and by doing so, there must be focus on improving the quality of care delivered to patients individually first and foremost. (Frist, (2005). We can now ask the question, Why the study of health disparity should be pursued and for whom is the study important to? The study of health disparity should be pursued because if nothing else but to determine if the research into health disparity will show any differences in organizational features that are specific. Furthermore the idea that organizational factors may play a significant role in health disparity has brought about more of a deep research on the role of organizational processes that are mutable when you look across the treatment setting. (Kilbourne, Switzer Fine, (2006), Purpose of the Statement The purpose of this study will be to test the framework that is conceptual that will cover health disparities in 3 phases. Detection Reducing and/or Eliminating Understanding The survey will include 200 male and female divided equally on uninsured Americans adults 18 years and older to gain feedback on why they do not have health insurance. (Felton, 2013). Viable Research Questions and Hypotheses What role if any how access to care directly affected your health status because you dont have health insurance? How has the cost of healthcare affected you individually, your families  health status because of no health insurance? How do you think your health status would change if you could afford health insurance? Do you think the new health care law will positively or negatively affect your ability to purchase health insurance? What factors do you believe are directly associated with the uninsured status as it relates to health insurance access? (Felton, (2013). Hypotheses Having no health insurance is directly impacting my access to care. Also the cost of care while having no health insurance is directly affecting my general health of me as well as my family. Also, if I had no cost for health insurance or low cost this would positively affect my health status as well as my family. With the Affordable Care Act of 2010 partially enforced, how do you believe this law will be directly associated with your uninsured status when it comes to access to health insurance. (Felton, 2013). Nature of the Study Design The strengths of Experimental Designs research according to the textbook, (Frankfort-Nachmias, Nachmias, (2008), designs begins with the understanding of the 4 components of research design which are: _comparison(correlation of two variables), manipulation(control over), control, (removal of other factors(, and generalization(different settings, larger populations can be use)._ (Frankfort-Nachmias, Nachmias, (2008).  The strengths of experimental designs is it will help a researcher understand the logic behind all other research designs, another strength is that an experiment lets the researcher observe and draw inferences that are casual with less difficulty no matter what type of variable is used and it allows researchers to be able to understand other design limitations. (Felton, (2013). According to the author,( Bhattacherjee, (2012). The limitations of Experimental Design research can be in the world of experimentation, the situation in the real world may not always relate, in situations where you have to randomly assign the persons to groups this may be impossible and unethical and another limitation would be getting rid of variables that are extraneous may not even be possible. (Felton, 2013). According to textbook by, (Frankfort-Nachmias, Nachmias, (2008). When I consider the quantitative research plan I am developing and my research questions, hypotheses, and variables, I would recommend the classic experimental design for research. The reason is my research plan involves, Health Disparities, which is a topic that can touch on several specific groups whether it be based on race, gender, insured, uninsured. In the classic experimental research design as the researcher you do have more control over the intrinsic and extrinsic variables for your research which is an advantage for me. Also in experimental design it allows the researcher to have control to introduce the variable that independent to help determine which direction the causation is being led to. Since Health Disparities will need to cover several areas in order to be effective I feel that experimental research design offers me the best chance of reaching the goal of my research which are three phases: 1. Detection, 2. Understanding of the problem and 3. getting rid of or eliminating health disparities all together. ( Felton, 2013). Since there are so many issues that are affecting Health Disparities in our world today, I feel I need to choose a research design plan that offers flexibility to the researchers which allows them to properly research the  issue, look at all sides to the issues to help come up with valid and ethical conclusions. Also, since I want to focus on uninsured Americans, just like me, and a hot topic in our world today, I will need an research design that will aid in my success to properly research this issue fully. iii. Instrumentation and materials According to the authors, (Keppel, Pamuk, Lynch, Carter-Pokras, Kim, Mays, Pearcy, Schoenbach, Weisman, (2005). S The levels of measurement that will be important for my study in Health Disparities can involve at the nominal level, ordinal level and ratio level. Health disparities can be measured according to six issues that are between populations and groups: 1. a reference point will need to be selected in order to measure disparity. 2. Disparity need to be measured in either relative or absolute terms. 3. Measurements for health disparities need to be in terms of adverse or favorable events. 4. Health disparity needs to be measured in summary fashion or pair-wise. 5. In health disparity you need to choose whether to weigh groups according to the size of the group. 6. In health disparity there needs to be a decision whether to order the groups in a inherent way. (Felton, (2013). According to the textbook, (Frankfort-Nachmias, (2008). The nominal level will be important to my study on health disparity because at this level you can measure a different symbol that will represent each symbol. For example: ethnicity, gender, nationality, martial status, religion, and where you live. According to Messer, (2008). The ratio level is also another level of measurement that can be used in my research study on Health disparities  because variables at this level have fixed natural zero points and absolute because these variable can be based on length, time, weight and area. Frankfort-Nachmias, (2008). Ratio measurement are the most common level of measurement used in disparity due to the scale of measurement. At the ratio level when measuring disparity it can be used in both as an absolute measure as well as a level of ratio. (Felton, (2013). Validity in research is concerned with whether you are measuring what you really need to or intend to measure for your research. There are three kinds validity in research: content, empirical and construct validity. I will ensure content validity, empirical validity, and construct validity for my study in health disparity in uninsured Americans by first understanding what each of the three types of validity mean: 1. Content validity is when your measurements are actually covering all areas you are intending to measure. In other words, nothing is left out. According to the textbook authors (Frankfort-Nachmias, (2008). Under content validity we have what is called face validity or the researchers evaluation that is subjective in their research. Another content validity is called sampling validity which is concerned about whether the population given in the research is sampled adequately. (Frankfort-Nachmias, (2008). Since health disparity covers a large area to be sampled, as a researcher I will have to find one area to focus on such as uninsured Americans, covering persons 18 years and older, male and females, all ethnic groups will all be a part of the sample. (Felton, 2013). According to authors (Hidalgo Goodman, (2012). Empirical validity refers to the relationship that is between an instrument that needs to be measured and the outcomes of the measurements. Construct validity relates the issues you are measuring to theoretical framework that is general. In disparities research it will be important to assess the standard criteria needed for the research to do what it is intended to do, especially if you are using different populations. In some cases, questionnaires may be needed to create validity in the study, but not in all studies. If in your disparities  research for uninsured Americans, where things like racism, race, ethnic groups which are considered constructs that are social can be hard to measure. (Felton, 2013) According to the article from (Active Campaign, (2009). In order to ensure validity in my research using content research which will be requiring all areas in my research I want to cover as it relates to health disparities for the uninsured American I would need to use a subjective form of measurement.(Felton, 2013). In the textbook, (Frankfort-Nachmias, (2008). The strengths and limitations in the reliability and validity I chose Construct validity strengths are based on how many dimensions and measures construct validity has, construct validity can be operated in a number of ways. (Felton, 2013). In order to ensure reliability for the measurement in my study, first I need to understand as a researcher the importance in the degree of reliability. Reliability is when your measuring instrument contain variable errors or mistakes that appear not all the time between your observation of your research for one time only or every time a variable is measured. So measurements contain two components which are called error component and true component. To further explain reliability which is measured on a ratio between true-score variance and variance in the total score measured. To ensure that my research study on health disparities is reliable for the measurement I will need to be able to distinguish that the results of the research may not be the exact same each time it is done. (Felton, (2013). The strengths and limitations when it comes to health disparities in the terms of reliability and validity can be linked to the fact that there are several components by which health disparities can be measured. Empirical validity and reliability are part of the research that deals with health disparities. One strength of empirical validity is relationships between prediction and results. According to the authors, (Ogden and Lo, (2011). The scale that is most appropriate to use for researching health disparities in uninsured America  Likert scale (tests attitudes) since it requires the researcher build a list of items that needs to be scaled, random research, then total of results. In using Likert scales there will be some limitations in the research involving health disparities. Some limitations are due to the debate on the role of comparisons socially and the impact it would bring on how the scales are completed and the results of the data being researched. ( Felton, 2013). According to authors Lobo and Mateus, (2013). Since in health disparities there are so many areas that need to be measured even access to health care and scales for measurement can help to achieve the needed results for the researcher if you take into account the aspects of the scale that you can enhance and you will continue to need to validate scales in your other populations. (Felton, (2013). According to ( Nowjack-Raymer, (2013), the test that is appropriate for my health disparities research plan would probably looking to better understand inequalities as well as health disparities, another test could involve developing testing with interventions that would be targeting people living in poverty, and we could also consider testing implementation and dissemination approaches for exploration to findings that would be effective in order to assure translation that is fast that could be put into practice, bring about some policies with action within communities. (Felton, (2013). The populations used for the scale and test as it relates to health disparities according to the NIDCR authors (Nowjack-Raymer, (2013), will involve research that will be focused on the vulnerable and disadvantaged population in subgroups. The testing population could include: Elders All ethnic and racial populations that are considered to be under health disparities, this will include Hispanic(Mexican, Puerto Rican, South and Central America, Cuban, and all Spanish speaking nations), African Americans, Native Americans, Pacific Islander, and Alaskan Rural low income persons, urban dwellers, including Appalachians Persons who are unable leave their homes due to disabilities and persons who are in institutions  the special needs populations that includes persons living with AIDS, developmental or acquired intellectual or physical disabilities. (Nowjack-Raymer, (2013) Data analysis plan: Since in program research there a number that is limited in the efforts to evaluate and create health disparities involving new strategies with the health care system. Here are some of these program that are being supported by the AHRQ Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality for example: (EXCEED) or Excellence Centers to Eliminate Ethnic/Racial Disparities, this is a grant program that looks for ways to eliminate health disparities. (Gillian, (2004). Sampling According to website (HHS.gov.,(2013), For my Quantitative Research Plan on Health Disparities using ratio measurement because it is the most common level used to measure disparity. The population (units of analysis that are relevant) for this research will include all uninsured African Americans in the United States today. Statistically according to the new Health Care Law or the Affordable Care Act there are 6.8 million African Americans eligible for benefits under the ACA. (Felton, 2013). The population for my study includes all uninsured African Americans in the United States according to the ACA. Population: 6.8 million African Americans (including male and female), almost half of this number of young adults. This population need to be defined on the basis of: A. Content, B. Extent, and C. Time. Size: 6.8 million. (HHS.gov.,(2013). I have made a  change in my population for research which will be first finding a reference point which is critical when doing research on disparity. According to the authors, (Keppel, Pamuk, Lynch, Careter-Pokras, Kim, Mays, Pearcy, Schoenbach, and Weissman,(2005). I will also need to measure disparity in relative or absolution terms. Disparity is very obvious when you realize that disparity occurs when the amount that separates a group from a reference point that is specified on a measure that is particular to health that is expressed in the terms of percentage, rate, means or some other measure that is quantitative. (Felton, 2013). . According to authors, (Keppel, et al, (2005) Sampling: an individual within the Population such as for example the young adult population size of 3.2 million or 47% don t have health insurance from the ages 18 to 35 years of age. Type of Sampling used: Probability sampling. A sample need to be able to represent the population it will be used for. When you want to measure a sample and your objective is to work from individual groups in a certain domain then use comparisons that are pair-wise. When you summarize the measures used in your disparity this will quantify all the groups in opposition and any conclusions based on your summary results should be joined and interpreted using all groups. (Felton, 2013) How the sample will be drawn? When disparities are measured, first the reference point need to be identified, next if any two groups need to be compared the reference point with the favorable group need to be used(lowest rates). When using disparities samples it should be measured in both relative and absolute terms and when you are measuring disparities over various of health indicators it should be shown in terms of events that are adverse. Why did you choose this sample size and why it was chosen in relation to the size of your population? I initially chose this sample size since I had 3 populations to choose from  for the uninsured African American population which were male, female, or young adults and I chose the young adult population since I had a solid statistical number of how many of young adults between the ages of 18 to 35 who are uninsured. I am not totally convinced that choosing a sample size representing millions of people will be the correct course for me to take and I had a terrible time trying to create a graph or chart to show my numbers and I could not get the graph to show. Since the number of uninsured Americans is very high even with the Affordable Care Act being in place, I may have to consider working in another area in health disparity. I was attempting to doing a basic line graph chart showing the age of young adults with no health insurance. Since health disparities covers such a wide range of issues I will have to reconsider what area under health disparity I want to cover and research. Ethical Concerns Health Disparities research has emerging advances which include comparative effectiveness studies and controlled trials that are often conducted at academic sites and multiple communities. The institutional review boards (IRBs) has presented a impediment that is major to the effective and timely conduct of health disparity research. When the research involved the underserved communities and minority along with institutional requirements, ethical standards interpretation may be different. These differences can cause complications in the research protocol and informed consent process and may have a negative effect on how the participants will respect this type of research and the quality of the trials. Also the IRB or institutional review board, can also lead to delays that are unnecessary, jeopardizing the capacity to perform collaborative projects and funding. The Research Centers in Minority Institutions (RCMI), Translational Research Network (TRN) have created a community-partnered approach to run side by side with the IRB review directly across the 18 RCMI institutions grantees that make sure compliance while making it better quality of health disparity research. (Hammatt,. and Nishitani, Junko and Heslin, Kevin and Perry and Szetela, and Jones, and Williams, and Antoine-LaVigne, and Forge, and  Norris, Keith C, (2011). Even though Americans are living longer and are healthier, health disparities still exist. However, policymakers are making a response to the health disparity issue by putting together and introducing legislation that are geared toward getting rid of health disparities. (ncsl.org., (2014). The Uninsured Americans as a health disparity There is about 44 million Americans total without health insurance and another 38 million Americans who do not have enough health insurance to meet their healthcare needs. If persons do not have health insurance it will usually mean putting also necessary care such as: Childhood Immunizations Preventive care Routine check-ups no Primary care doctor no access or limited access to prescription drugs being hospitalized for a condition that otherwise would not have led to a hospital stay that could have been avoided if you had health insurance Because of fear of medical bills you may choose to delay care which will usually lead to more cost to you, especially if you have to go to the emergency room. We must also understand that when the uninsured persons face a health crisis because they cant pay the burden of the cost will be to the insured population. (Glied, (2014). References: Active Campaign, ( 2009). Validity in Research Design. Retrieved from website http://www.activecampaign.com/blog/validity-in-research-design/ Bhattacherjee, A.,(2012). SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH: PRINCIPLES, METHODS, AND PRACTICES. Retrieved from website http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002context=oa_textbooks Felton. (2013). _An analysis of personality theory._ Unpublished manuscript, Walden University. Frankfort-Nachmias, C., Nachmias, D. (2008). Research Methods in the Social Sciences 7th Ed. New York: Worth Frist, W., (2005). Overcoming Disparities in U. S. Healthcare. _Health Affairs. Retrieved from website http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/24/2/445.short._ Gibbons, M., (2005). A Historical Overview of Health Disparities and the Potential of eHealth Solutions. _Journal of Medical Internet Research. Retrieved from website http://www.jmir.org/2005/5/e50/_ Gillian, S., (2004). Addressing Unequal Treatment: Disparities in Healthcare. _The Common Fund. Retrieved from website http://www.commonwealthfund.org/usr_doc/SteelFisher_unequaltreatment_cong2004_70 9.pdf?section=4039_ Glied, S., (2014). The Uninsured. Retrieved from the website http://www.pbs.org/healthcarecrisis/uninsured.html HHS.gov(Health care.,. The Affordable Care Act and the African Americans. Retrieved from website http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/facts/factsheets/2012/04/aca-and-african- americans04122012a.html012). (HAMMATT,. AND NISHITANI, JUNKO AND HESLIN, KEVIN AND PERRY AND SZETELA, AND JONES, AND WILLIAMS, AND ANTOINE-LAVIGNE, AND FORGE, AND NORRIS, KEITH C, (2011). PARTNERING TO HARMONIZE IRBS FOR COMMUNITY-ENGAGED RESEARCH TO REDUCE HEALTH DISPARITIES. PUBMED.GOV. RETRIEVED FROM WEBSITE HTTP://WWW.NCBI.NLM.NIH.GOV/PUBMED/22102302 (Hidalgo Goodman, (2012). Validation of Self-Reported Measures in Health Disparities Research. _Journal of Biometrics and Biostatistics. Retrieved from website_ http://www.omicsonline.org/validation-of-self-reported-measures-in-health-disparities- research-2155-6180.1000e114.pdf (Keppel, Pamuk, Lynch, Carter-Pokras, Kim, Mays, Pearcy, Schoenbach, Weisman, (2005). Methodological Issues in Measuring Health Disparities. Retrieved from website http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_02/sr02_141.pdf Kilbourne, A., Switzer, G., Hyman, K., Crowley-Matoka, M., Fine, M., (2006). Advancing Health Disparities Research within The Health Care System: A Conceptual Framework. Retrieved from website http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1698151/ LOBO, A., MATEUS, S., (2013). VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF AN EQUITY IN HEALTH CARE SCALE. _SAGE JOURNALS. RETRIEVED FROM WEBSITE_ HTTP://SGO.SAGEPUB.COM/CONTENT/3/4/2158244013506716 Messer, L., (2008). Invited Commentary: Measuring Social Disparities in Health-What Was the Question Again? _American Journal of Epiderminology._ Retrieved from website http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/167/8/900.full.pdf ncsl.org., (2014). 2014 Health Disparity Legislation. Retrieved from website http://www.ncsl.org/research/health/2014-health-disparities-legislation.aspx nlm.nih.gov., Medline Plus., (2013). Health Disparities. Retrieved from website http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthdisparities.html Nowjack-Raymer, (2013). Health Disparities Research Programs. Retrieved from website http://www.nidcr.nih.gov/Research/DER/ClinicalResearch/HealthDispar.htm Ogden, J., Lo, J.,(2011). How meaningful is data from Likert Scales? An evaluation of how ratings are made and the role of the response shift in the socially disadvantaged. Journal of Health Psychology. Retrieved from website http://hpq.sagepub.com/content/early/2011/08/06/1359105311417192, Parkdatabase.org.,(2012). Qualitative and Quantitative Research Techniques for Humanitarian Needs Assessment. _An Introductory Brief._ Retrieved from website http://reliefweb.int/report/world/qualitative-and-quantitative-research-techniques- humanitarian-needs-assessment. Shavers, V., (2007). Measurement of Socio-economic Status in Health Disparity Research. _Journal of National Medical Association. Retrieved from website_

Influence of Technology in Modern Life: Social Networks

Influence of Technology in Modern Life: Social Networks The accessibility of the new information technology has led that social structures change, and with it the ways of relating to others. With this process of change has created what is known as virtual communities, Rheingold defined the virtual communities as a group of social aggregates which arises from internet when a group of people create public discussions long enough to create networks of personal relationships in cyberspace. (Rheingold, 1993, The Virtual Community,). Thus individuals create new social networks where they can exchange information anytime, anywhere, depending on their needs and desires. Issues such as that new information technologies can interfere interpersonal relationships are increasingly questioned by several studies that analyze the impact positive and negative to the use and abuse leads. The aim of this essay is to discuss the pros and cons of the effects that are producing social networks. The influence of technology in modern life entails negative and positive aspects, Bauman (2010) argues that contemporary men are desperate to relate, however they avoid a permanent relationship, for fear of the tensions that might imply, contrary to what which are not able or willing to endure, as they would limit the freedom they need. The relations are characterized by the ambiguity and they occupy the spotlight of modern individual’s liquids, being the priority in their life projects. Digital communication has caused formal changes in communicative genres and materials in interpersonal relationships (Laborda Gil, 2005). Interpersonal relationships are in constant transformation in everyday human being, and this transformation have influenced the new technological applications generating changes in interpersonal communication. The fact that digital interactions between people increases, is creating a different perception of space and time, a sense of immediacy of events and an acceleration in the process. Interpersonal relations is mutual interaction between two or more people. It involves social and emotional skills that promote effective communication skills, listening, conflict resolution and authentic self-expression. One of the first theorists to dedicate himself to the study of interpersonal behavior was Leary (1957), defining it as any behavior that is related open, conscientious, ethical or symbolically with another real or imagined collective human. Today, we tend to regard interpersonal relationships and cognitive processes as two sides of the same coin, as it begins to pay more attention to the emotional and motivational aspects involved in the interaction, and integrate the contributions from the field of interpersonal theories. This is how it leads to the deepening understanding of the cognitive processes that are involved in interactions with other individuals. However, from a critical look Bauman (2010) argues that people rather than tra nsmit their experience and expectations in terms of relationships and relationships, talk about connections, connecting and staying connected. Instead of talking about couples, prefer to speak of networks. Unlike relations, kinship, partner or any other idea that emphasizes mutual commitment; disengagement network represents a matrix that connects and disconnects at the same time. In networks both activities are enabled at the same time, ie connect and disconnect are equally legitimate elections, equal status and equal importance. The network suggests moments of being in contact and other time to snoop; in the networking the connections are established on demand and can be cut as desired, being able to be dissolved before becoming detestable. The pre virtual relationships and real relationships are replaced by virtual relationships or connections. These latter are easily to access and output, are characterized by being sensible, hygienic, easy to use, friendly for the users, as oppo sed to the heavy, inert, slow and complicated the trues. The relationship between users of social networks goes from vertically to horizontal, enabling a fictitious equality, in which any user becomes emitter producing their own content, and even as a receiver transmitter information for Caldevilla Domà ­nguez (2010) these new forms of communication and interaction, emerge new threats to privacy, if does not differ the public for each of the profiles, being one of the disadvantages of using networks, the identity spoofing and individualism as possible trend to the actual isolation from sociability network. The absence of direct perception of the body and the inaccessibility of the same in cyberspace constitute a limit whose intersubjective effects are paradoxical, as it is lived as both defect and deficiency in the relationship, or as possibility of eliminating a factor of discrimination against others. The difficulty, would lead search reinforcing relations to others through other means with which manages to avoid physical presence or direct exposure in social situations and can remain anonymous or develop a fictitious, or even personality, leave the virtual relationship without negative consequences directly perceptible. Pretend downplay changes in human relations that the new virtual culture presents is to deny the possibility of believing that a new era related between social media and individuals are emerging. These relations between both parties requires significant knowledge to recognize and use those tools to approach the other from the place that elapses your experience. It will be left to the professionals responsible for an election that contributes to the growth and welfare of those who demand service. References Bauman, Z. (2003).Liquid love. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Bergo, B. (2006).Emmanuel Levinas. [online] Plato.stanford.edu. Available at: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/levinas/ [Accessed 6 Apr. 2015]. Caldevilla Dominguez, D. (2010).Las redes sociales. TipologiÃÅ' a, uso y consumo de las redes 2.0 en la sociedad digital actual. EspanÃÅ'Æ’a: Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Ciencias de la Informacion. Internet Archive, (2015).Interpersonal diagnosis of personality; a functional theory and methodology for personality evaluation : Leary, Timothy, 1920-1996 : Free Download Streaming : Internet Archive. [online] Available at: https://archive.org/details/interpersonaldia00learrich [Accessed 6 Apr. 2015]. WhatIs.com, (2015).What is virtual community? Definition from WhatIs.com. [online] Available at: http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/virtual-community [Accessed 6 Apr. 2015]. http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/virtual-community Bauman, Z. (2010). Amor Là ­quido: acerca de la fragilidad de los và ­nculos humanos. 1a ed. 13 ª reimp. Buenos Aires: Fondo de Cultura Econà ³mica. Laborda Gil, X. (2005). Tecnologà ­as, Redes y Comunicacià ³n Interpersonal. aà ±o XII nà ºmero II (24) / 2011 fundamentos en humanidades 229 Efectos en las formas de la comunicacià ³n digital. Anales de documentacià ³n, N °8, pp. 101-116. Leary, T. (1957). Interpersonal diagnosis of personality: A functional theory and met- hodology for personality evaluation. New York: Ronald Press. Caldevilla Domà ­nguez, D. (2010). Tipologà ­a, uso y consumo de las redes 2.0 en la sociedad digital actual. Documentacià ³n de las Ciencias de la Informacià ³n, vol. 33, pp. 45-68. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/levinas/ https://archive.org/details/interpersonaldia00learrich Vodafones Entry into Japan: An Analysis Vodafones Entry into Japan: An Analysis Globalization is regarded as a tool which has facilitated the movement of businesses from independent market economies to an inter-reliant and incorporated global economy thereby reducing trade barriers between countries and continents. (Hill, 2007). With the reduction of these trade barriers many companies have grown from Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) to Multi-National Enterprise (MNE). Through international growth and globalization these MNEs are recognisable world wide. One such organisation is the Vodafone group which is a telecommunications company founded in the United Kingdom. Vodafone is currently ranked as the 11th most valued brand in the world and 2nd in Europe. (Vodafone, 2009).According to Anwar (2003) they have achieved this status by using different market entry strategies to expand their enterprise via acquisitions and joint ventures with Orange (UK), Air Touch and Verizon (USA) and Mannesmann (Germany). Although Vodafone has been successful in the above listed c ountries, its entry into Japan failed after a few years due to reasons which will be explained later in this essay. This is the main reason for the choice of Vodafone as a case study. This essay will first give an outline of Vodafones history and then provide a review of theories which influence global expansion and internationalization, as they relate to market entry, business strategy and culture. Following this a case study of Japans mobile market and an analysis of Vodafones operations and strategies as they affect its entry to and exit from the market will be provided. Finally, recommendations based on their choice of strategy will be made. Company Background Vodafone was created in 1991 as a subsidiary of Racal Telecom (RT) which was formed in 1984. RT was created from a joint venture between Racal Strategic Radio Ltd (80% which was a subsidiary of Racal Electronics Plc and winner of one of the first two cellular telephone network licenses in the UK), Millicom (15%) a US-based Communications Company and the Hambros Technology Trust (5%), a UK-based venture capital fund. The name Vodafone was coined with the first four letters of its name denoting its services (VOice Data Fone). (Vodafone, 2009) Vodafone has become a very prominent mobile operator in the world with a large presence in Europe, America, Asia, Middle East and Africa. Its services include but are not limited to mobile advertisement, network business, distribution business, retail shops, data services, Short Messaging Service (SMS), multi-media portal, third generation (3g) licences and data and fixed broadband services. (Vodafone, 2009) Over time Vodafone has expanded into different parts of the globe including, Belgium, France, Greece, Germany, Italy, France, Romania, USA, Egypt, Kenya and South Africa to mention a few. (Vodafone.com, 2009) Vodafones early success has been attributed to its usage of key niche strategies and first mover advantages regarding location economies. This helps gain market share which leads to economies of scale and earning curve advantages through the utilization of its core competencies in foreign markets. (Anwar, 2003; Pan et al, 1999) Vodafone entered the Japanese market in 1999 when it inherited stakes in nine regional mobile phone companies through its merger with US rival Air Touch making it the second largest shareholder in the market at that time. Another reason for their entry into the Japanese market was that they considered the market as very vibrant and it would give them a technological edge over domestic and European rivals. (Anwar, 2003; Dodourova, 2003; Kim et al, 2009) Theoretical Review In considering global expansion, companies need to make decisions about the choice of market to enter, timing, products to be sold and market entry mode. (Hill, 2007). Market entry modes refers to the way in means an organisation chooses to enter a particular market such as are exporting, franchising, foreign direct investment, international joint ventures and wholly owned subsidiaries. (Hill, 2007; Root, 1994) Although all these forms of entry have been used by Vodafone, for the purpose of this paper specific attention will be paid to the use of acquisitions and joint ventures (JVs) as entry modes, since they have been used repeatedly by Vodafone in different locations including India, Japan, Egypt, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden, Italy, Greece, Portugal, Spain and Australia. (Vodafone, 2009; Anwar, 2003). An acquisition is a situation whereby a firm acquires a company in an intended market while a joint venture involves the combination of two or more firms to create a company. JVs enable firms to split the necessary risk and capital required for international ventures. They usually involve a foreign company with a new product and a local firm with access to distribution and local knowledge such as culture, political and business systems. However, using JVs has its disadvantages as firms face difficulties merging different cultures and some parties may not understand the strategic intent of their partners which may lead to problems (Root, 1994; Pearce and Robinson, 2007;Hill,2007 ). On the other hand, acquisitions allow firms to make very rapid international expansions and can be accomplished quickly. However, they are very expensive and legal regulatory requirements and organisational culture may act as barriers. Despite these drawbacks they are considered a very safe means of global expansion. (Ives and Jarvenpaa, 1991, Pearce and Robinson, 2007) The internationalization model (Uppsala) advices that global expansion is a learning process and that the more experience a firm gathers it strengthens its dedication to foreign markets. (Hollenson, 2004). However, most firms have to consider the level of global integration and local responsiveness (both are at alternative ends of the standardization scale) required in the target market. This is known as I-R framework, since it is a necessity for firms operating in multiple country locations to be responsive to market (cost reduction) and governmental demands (local needs) for each location. Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) divided the framework into four strategies, namely global, International, Multi-Domestic and Transnational. However, many companies tend to shift from one strategy to another in an attempt to meet local demands and capitalize on competitive advantages. (Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) in Roth and Morrison, 1990; Hill, 2007, Pearce and Robinson, 2007) Vodafone attempted to move from the global to the transnational strategy because they largely ignored local responsiveness and lost market share as a result of the international strategy. The advantages and disadvantages of the global and transnational will now be examined. Global integration indicates the fusion of different national economic systems into one global market. A key aspect is the pressure of cost reduction while local responsiveness refers to the readiness of firms to make modifications to their products, services, and ways of doing business at local levels considering local culture and needs. (Hill, 2007; Pearce and Robinson, 2007)The core focus is of the global model is on high global integration since firms sell standardized products in and across all national markets with minimal levels of local adaptation. Also, most business decisions are made from the firms central office as there is a great need for resource sharing and cross border co-ordination which is sometimes difficult to achieve. Organisations use this strategy due to high levels of competition in the global market and all Strategic Business Units are mutually dependent. As a result of this the firm attempts to maximize the advantages of location economies and the experienc e curve and it is not very concerned with responsiveness to local markets. Location economies refer to the advantages a company would accrue from being in a particular location and the experience curve that shows the level of experience gained based on reduction of production cost. Many MNEs, such as McDonalds in the United Kingdom, have used this strategy successfully. Others for example Vodafone in Japan, have failed due to the level of local responsiveness needed for the location. (Daniels et al, 2009; Hollenson, 2004; Hill, 2007; Weber, 2007, Kim et al, 2009; Pearce and Robinson, 2007; Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) in Roth and Morrison, 1990) The Transnational strategy focuses on satisfying the condition of local responsiveness and global integration irrespective of pressure levels for both factors. Its has been suggested that this strategy be used if cost pressure and local responsiveness are high or low as they fluctuate depending on the level of development of the country or location and globalization. (Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) in Roth and Morrison, 1990; Hill 2007) This approach allows MNEs to tailor their products and marketing practices to the intended market and more profit is made in a situation where cost reduction pressures are not great and the firm can increase price. Although in situations where cost reduction pressures are high the organisations make try to make profit from other means. (Roth and Morrison, 1990; Weber, 2007) According to Hill, (2007) this strategy is difficult to implement as firms attempt to balance economies of scale, attain low costs through location economies, experience curve effects, local responsiveness and global learning (Global learning refers to the transference of knowledge and products between the firms head office and its subsidiaries). The difficulty arises from organisational problems because there is a need for firm central control and organization to achieve efficiency, local flexibility and decentralization to attain local market receptiveness. This is aside from the need to acquire global and organisational learning for competitive advantage. CASE STUDY The Japanese mobile industry was considered a year or two ahead of the rest of the world and was ready for Vodafone to enter because Japans market was more technologically advanced than most other European telecommunication markets. It was the pioneer country for the third generation network {3G} and the European market was becoming saturated and competition and regulatory pressures were forcing prices lower. (Economist, 2004; Fackler and Belson, 2005; Yamauchi et al 2004). Also the Japanese market was highly competitive and Japan was the first country to introduce a packet switched wireless network {DoPa}; the first to introduce wireless internet {i-mode} in 1999; the first to introduce camera phones, 3Gs in 2000 and 3.5G in 2003. Japan had advanced broadband communications system as early as 2000. (Yamauchi et al 2004; Kim et al 2009; Chen et al 2007) In addition, the Japanese market is known for its opposition to foreign investors and has always been considered as a hard market to penetrate as consumers usually favour local brands over foreign products. Also Japans governance has a strong hold on corporate activities and many organization owners usually do not do sell or merge with foreign investors unless they are convinced of the firms performance levels which in turn makes acquisitions and mergers with foreign investors a difficult process.(Anonymous,2002) VODAFONE IN JAPAN. As mentioned earlier Vodafone entered Japan in 1999 as a result of its Acquisition of Air touch in America which gave it a 26% stake in J-Phone a Japanese mobile phone group by 2000 Vodafone had acquired an estimated 60% of J Phone. Vodafone took its time before entering the Japanese market. This approach paid off as they could not afford a hostile takeover as was the case when they acquired Mannesman in Germany because this could have affected their relationship with other Japanese stakeholders. (Anonymous, 2002; Blokand, 2007; Anwar, 2003) After its acquisition J Phone seemed to be making progress as it rose to become the 3rd largest telecommunications group in Japan by 2002 as its subscriber base had exceeded 12 million in the same year. J Phones target population prior to its acquisition was young adults and they had developed handsets with gadgets that were appealing to the young generation. They also introduced the Sha-mail (Picture messaging service) which marked the beginning of the picture messaging trend in Japan. Their marketing campaigns involved using Japanese pop stars and idols to attract new customers (Blokand, 2007; Dodourova, 2003) However, with the introduction of Vodafones globally standardized product things began to change. Vodafone introduced handsets which were acceptable in Europe to Japan ignoring the fact that Japan was more technologically advanced than Europe. As a result of this J Phone (re-named Vodafone KK in 2003) began to loose its customer base. Also in an attempt to create a global brand Vodafone delayed the launch of its 3g service (which allows customer watch videos and use teleconferencing) because they wanted to create a global product allowing their local competitors such as the KDDI group and NTT DoCoMo to commence 3g usage one year ahead of them. Eventually, when Vodafone KKs 3g package was finally launched supply was limited because the 3g handsets were being shipped from overseas. (Hill, 2009; Blokand, 2007; the Economist, 2004) Also inadequate investment in network infrastructure caused Vodafone to suffer bad network connection that caused them to lose subscribers. (Euro-Technology, 2009) Vodafones choice of strategy for its expansion into Japan is obviously the global strategy advocates the standardization of all products and services irrespective of the level of local responsiveness required in the location. Vodafone attempted to change strategies by involving so level of local responsiveness(from global to transnational) via the introduction of handsets tailored for the Japanese market to rectify its underestimation of Japanese customers peculiarity by offering them what they required instead of what the company wanted. Also the Japanese government in 2004 brought in new regulations against handsets which could be roamed since there was a propensity for them to be used by criminals. (Euro-Technology, 2009; Anwar,2003) However due all the above listed reason Vodafone KK struggled to retain its market share from 2002 to 2004 (See Diagram) .Its competitors like DoCoMo, who was the market leader with about 56% share and KDDI with about 23%. Diagram I: Mobile Phone Subscribers Net Growth Source: The Economist, 2004(September 30th Edition) By 2004 when KDDI had moved most of its subscribers to the 3G technology and DoCoMo had moved about 10%, Vodafone had been able to connect only 1% of its subscribers (Economist, 2004). By February 2005, Vodafone had gained 527,300 subscribers while KDDI and DoCoMo had gained 10 million and 17 million 3G subscribers respectively. By October 2005, Vodafones figures dropped by 103, 100 subscribers while DoCoMo and KDDI had attracted 1.65 million and 1.82 million subscribers respectively. At this time, Vodafone KK had captured only 4.8% of the market. (Blokand, 2007; the Economist, 2004; Lewis, 2006) Vodafone sold its Japanese branch to Soft Bank in March 2006 and by October in the same year Soft Bank reported a year-on-year sales revenue increase of 144.3%, with operating profits up a staggering 260.4% because they used a purely localized approach and catered to the markets needs. (Jing, 2009) Nevertheless, Vodafones global strategy succeeded in Germany although according to Weber (2006) Germany was a few years behind Japan considering the obtainability of mobile services, such as data services, 3g, cameras and music phones. It was able to utilize its economies of scale and experience curve advantages, to maximize profits. Vodafone applied a slightly different strategy in entering this market as it merged with Mannesmann via a hostile bid for the company whilst it was in financial trouble. Mannesmann acquired Orange (UK) in 1999 and faced difficulties recuperating its investment. Vodafone saw this opportunity and bid for Mannesmann to subvert other companies like WorldCom or ATT acquiring the company. (Boemer, 2007) On entry into the market in 2000 Vodafone divested some of Mannesmann subsidiaries to recover funds. However, it is apparent from the above that the challenges Vodafone in Japan were much more complex in comparison to Germany. Its main competitors are T-Mobile, E plus and O2. At inception the Vodafone introduced its standard products from the United Kingdom like Voice calling and SMSs, mobile internet was not introduced until 2003 as it was not popular and Vodafone decided not to begin this service in Germany till 2005. (Boemer, 2007; Weber, 2006; Henten et al, 2004) Vodafone utilized different forms of marketing approaches but the most successful was its loyalty packaged dubbed stars introduced in 2002 helped it increase its market share substantially. Furthermore by 2005 Vodafone had gained 35% market share followed by O2 which had 32% then E Plus with 19% and T-Mobile had 14%. This was a total opposite of Vodafone performance in Japan. (Von Kuczkowski, 2005) In addition Japan is noted for being at the helm of technological development called gijutsu rikkoku in Japanese which means technological nation building and it exports its technology. Therefore it is possible to assume that the Japanese would be more interested in high-tech gadgets and services than Germans. (Boemer, 2007; Weber, 2006) The difference in cultural practices must not be ignored because the German business circle was not controlled by Guan Xi which refers to the relationships between people in a community the higher and tighter the level of Guan Xi a person has in China and Japan the better his business prospects within the country .(Yeung and Tung, 1996) Vodafone Japan did not generate a trustworthy brand image in the Japanese market and failure to tailor their product to the needs to its customers, which is a major faux pas in marketing and company survival made matters worse. Recommendations Vodafone in Japan would have succeeded if it had avoided using a global strategy as it had the capability to succeed, if it had considered the tastes of the people and attempted a transnational approach to its expansion plans. Also, Vodafone should have used its competitors products and services offering as a benchmark for its own services. Instead of taking a one size fits all approach into Japan as this had a negative impact on its services and performance. Similarly, if Vodafone had tried to satisfy its customer base of students and the younger population before endeavoring to penetrate a new market of families and the corporate world. Moreover, considering that J-Phone had been on a market increase streak for over five years, Vodafone should have used J-Phones local knowledge of the market and combined its experience create a winning team instead of trying to create a global brand and cut cost by introducing a large number of handsets that could be sold throughout the world. Private and Public Self: A Comparison of Identities Private and Public Self: A Comparison of Identities Private self is the information regarding to a person which he/she has difficulties to express publicly. Public self is the perspective other people view an individual as portrayed in public information, interaction with others and public action. Generally, public self relies on the public for definition but it’s also the individual’s perspective of the way he/she appears and steps taken when in public. Mostly, public self and private self is revealed in speaking and actions. Private and public speaking is generally feared almost by everybody. Some people will avoid public speaking at all costs. Sometimes, the avoidance may lead to missing a great chance to make an impression which is good and/ or long-lasting, opportunity to sell their product or themselves. Development of authentic speaking has made it easy for the improvement of the way people come across, and reduction of the people’s feeling of fear before and during their presentation. Authentic speaking de fers from other approaches since it doesn’t inculcate any other methodology or technique to the individual and the learning involves experience. Authentic speaking gets the individual to meditate on what he or she is thinking before speaking. Once the speaker opens their mouth to speak, he/she should be relaxed, comfortable and in a good mental state. Therefore, thorough preparation and mental awareness of the speaker’s own talk is paramount. In order for the individual to feel better and prepared for the task ahead, he/she should acknowledge the â€Å"script† and then rewrite it. This is due to the fact that the task (talk) has a profound impact on how the individual will feel. Physical posture is also necessary in creating confidence in a presenter. The presenter may adopt an upright and proud posture, but not trying to hide from the audience. Mostly, the reason as to why people fear public and private speaking is due to self-consciousness. Self-consciousness refers to an acute sense of self awareness. It is opposed to the philosophical definition of self-awareness since it is a pre-occupation with one’ self, the awareness that an individual being exists. An individual may have an unpleasant feeling of self-consciousness when he/she comes to know that other people are watching or observing him/her. The unpleasant feeling of self-consciousness is occasionally paired with paranoia or shyness. When an individual is self-conscious, he/she becomes aware of his/her own actions no matter how small they are. A person’s ability to perform complex actions can be impaired by such awareness. a person may be shy or introverted if he/she has a chronic tendency towards self-consciousness. Being excessively conscious of a person’s appearance or manner is at times problematic. Shyness and embarrassment, where the resul t is low self-esteem and lack of pride can be paired with self-consciousness. During high self-consciousness period, people come to the closest understanding themselves objectively, and this has potential to have impact on development of identity. The impact of self-consciousness has varying degree in people since; some are self-involved or constantly self-monitoring while others are quite and totally oblivious about themselves. Private self-consciousness is a norm to examine or introspect one’s inner self and feelings, while public self-consciousness is self-awareness resulting from other people’s views. Both types of self-consciousness are objectively personality traits which are considerably stable over time though there is no correlation between them. Public self-consciousness may lead to social anxiety and self-monitoring. Behavior is affected by various levels of self-consciousness since it is normal for people to act differently if they â€Å"lose themselves in crowd†. This can result to an inhibited and regularly destructive behavior. Different people have varying tendencies of self-disclosure. Self-disclosure is the means of communication where a person reveals himself/herself to another. It includes all that an individual choses to disclose to the other person about him/herself, to make him/her known. The information can be evaluative or descriptive and can comprise of aspirations, feelings, thoughts, successes, fears, failures, dreams, goals, as well as one’s favorites and dislikes. As social penetration theory poses, there are two self-disclosure dimensions which are breadth and depth. These dimensions are essential in developing a relationship which is fully intimate (Modell, 1993). Breadth disclosure is the range of topics which two individuals discuss while depth disclosure is the degree to which the revealed information is private or personal. Breadth disclosure is easier to be expressed first in a relationship since it has more accessible features which comprise layers of personality and daily live s such as preferences and occupations. It is considerably difficult to reach depth disclosure since its inner location comprises of painful memories and traits we keep secret from most people. Intimacy relies much upon self-disclosure which is expected to be reciprocal and appropriate. Assessment of self-disclosure can be done through analysis of costs and rewards. During early relational development is where most self-disclosure takes place but more intimate disclosure comes later. As social penetration theory poses, development of a relationship is relative to systematic changes in communication. Generally, relationships start with exchange of superficial information and eventually move to conversations which are more meaningful. It is essential to increase breadth and depth of a conversation if partners need to develop a more intimate relationship. Conversations between partners usually begin with â€Å"small talk† which provides little revelation about the speaker’ s information. It reaches the intimate level where the breadth and depth of the conversation increases and more personal details are revealed till it reaches the very intimate level where couples share extremely private information. Development of intimacy in relationships can only develop if both parties reciprocate disclosures. If only one partner reveals more intimate details while the other continues to disclose superficial information only, intimacy will not develop. The reciprocity process needs to be gradual and partners should match the intimacy level of the disclosures. Revelation of too personal information too soon causes an imbalance in the relationship and therefore making the other person uncomfortable. The gradual process differs from relationship to relationship and may depend on the communication partner. Reciprocity is the positive response from a person with whom one is sharing information. It can be described by three theories which are: norm of reciprocity, social exchange theory and the social attraction-trust hypothesis. The norm of reciprocity poses that reciprocating disclosure is a social norm and failure to adhere to it makes a person uncomfortable. The social exchange theory states th at people try to maintain equality in disclosing themselves since an imbalance in self-disclosure makes them uncomfortable. Social attraction-trust hypothesis states that people disclose themselves to one another since they have the belief that the person who they disclose the information to, likes and trusts them. There are two types of reciprocity which are extended reciprocity and turn-taking reciprocity. The extended reciprocity is where disclosure takes place over a period of time while turn-taking reciprocity is when there is immediate self-disclosure between partners. Disclosure and responsiveness form the key components for intimacy. The range of topics which individuals disclose (breadth) also varies in different cultures. For example, people from the American culture tend to reveal more personal topics like relationships, body, finances and other issues concerning their health and personality than any other cultures. This is not the case when it comes to individuals from the Japanese culture. The Japanese are very conservative and mostly don’t reveal their personal issues to the public. Also, the degree of how personal the topics to be reveled are also varies across different cultures. These include feelings, thoughts and also more impersonal topics like hobbies and interests. Some individuals prefer not to reveal their feelings and private thoughts while holding conversations as they feel that this will make them seem vulnerable or insecure. The negative or positive aspect of the topic to be revealed is also an important factor that also varies in different cultures. For example a person participating i n a debate may feel that revealing a real life event that took place and had a negative effect on them may help them prove their point. However, this person may end up hurt as their opponent may not get this and may also end up using the fact to their own advantage. The individuals that tend to reveal more personal issues than others undergo more psychological problems. When establishing a relationship, there is a time period that one takes before they can fully disclose to the other. Individuals from cultures that are more conservative tend to withhold much information until they feel that the relationship has grown and they can trust the other party. Revelation of too much personal information before the relationship has grown is considered inappropriate, some other cultures however, disclosure is done after a very short period of time. The target party, to whom an individual discloses themselves, is also an important factor that is considered in many communities. For example, spouses trust each other hence, they self-disclose almost everything. Some consider the age of the target and what topics are appropriate to disclose to them. According to Alder and Proctor (2007), self-disclosure is important and at the same time it can have unfavorable outcomes. For instance, self-disclosure can help strengthen the relationship between two individuals by improving the trust between the two. It can also increase one’s influence over the other individuals and can also be used as a way of bringing out the good qualities in an individual. At the same time self-disclosure may reflect vulnerability in one’ self and may also make the other party develop a negative attitude towards the relationship leading to its termination. There are various factors to consider before a person decides to self-disclose. Sometimes, disclosure of information can be harmful than helpful. The discloser must weigh if the probable benefits level the risk. Self-disclosure is most useful when used constructively and when revealing relevant information in reasonable amounts to a person who reciprocates with their own disclosures equally. It is also crucial to reveal information that could probably save someone from harm or to help them. References Adler, R.B., Proctor, R.F. (2007).  Looking out looking in (12th Ed.). Belmont, CA:Thomas Learning, Inc. Baumeister, R. F. (1986). Public self and private self. New York: Springer-Verlag. Modell, A. H. (1993). The private self. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

The Arctic Tundra :: Antarctica Nature Wildlife Environmental Essays

The Arctic Tundra The Tundra is located in the northern regions of North America, Europe, Asia, as well as a few regions of Antarctica. The Tundra is the second largest vegetation zone in Canada. It can be divided clearly into three different sections: the High Arctic Tundra, the Low Arctic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra. The latter Alpine Tundra occurs in higher altitudes such as mountains whereas the first two are mainly based in plains and lowlands of some kind. The Low Arctic Tundra is the transmission point to the north. It is located above Canada's Boreal forests and is followed by the High Arctic Tundra. The High Arctic Tundra is located farther north and encompasses the Arctic circle as well as most of the western Northwest Territories. Generally though since climate more or less corresponds to vegetation zones, the Tundra is located in Arctic climate areas. Temperature The Tundra suffers a very harsh climate. Because of this fact most of the area remains barren save for a few shrubs and lichens. It's winters last from 8-10 months and the summers are cool and short. Also due to the fact that much of it's territory is located within the northern pole a lot of the Tundra receives alternating 6 month periods of light and dark. This is also the reason why the Tundra receives cold weather; at it's degree of latitude the suns rays end up hitting the region obliquely, thus causing less solar heat. Here are the temperatures of the Tundra in general: Average January temperature: -32.1 degrees Celsius Average July temperature: +4.1 degrees Celsius Temperature range: 36.2 degrees Celsius Average annual temperature: -17 degrees Celsius Lowest temperature recorded: -52.5 degrees Celsius Highest temperature recorded: +18.3 degrees Celsius After seeing these temperatures you can see the reason why barely anyone lives up there and why there is rather little natural vegetation. Seasons And Moisture Content The main seasons of the Tundra are summer and winter. The winter will last 8 to 10 months followed by the short and much less cold summer. During the summer some lower areas of the Tundra will defrost at which point most of the flora and fauna will start to creep out of hiding. The few summer months are used by many animals such as the polar bear, to mate and to prepare for the once again oncoming winter. During the winter months most everything remains frozen. Many of the animals migrate south for the winter whereas some stay behind or even group together for ritual group suicide (lemmings). There is little precipitation all year long in the Tundra. The average yearly total is 136 mm, out of which 83. The Arctic Tundra :: Antarctica Nature Wildlife Environmental Essays The Arctic Tundra The Tundra is located in the northern regions of North America, Europe, Asia, as well as a few regions of Antarctica. The Tundra is the second largest vegetation zone in Canada. It can be divided clearly into three different sections: the High Arctic Tundra, the Low Arctic Tundra and the Alpine Tundra. The latter Alpine Tundra occurs in higher altitudes such as mountains whereas the first two are mainly based in plains and lowlands of some kind. The Low Arctic Tundra is the transmission point to the north. It is located above Canada's Boreal forests and is followed by the High Arctic Tundra. The High Arctic Tundra is located farther north and encompasses the Arctic circle as well as most of the western Northwest Territories. Generally though since climate more or less corresponds to vegetation zones, the Tundra is located in Arctic climate areas. Temperature The Tundra suffers a very harsh climate. Because of this fact most of the area remains barren save for a few shrubs and lichens. It's winters last from 8-10 months and the summers are cool and short. Also due to the fact that much of it's territory is located within the northern pole a lot of the Tundra receives alternating 6 month periods of light and dark. This is also the reason why the Tundra receives cold weather; at it's degree of latitude the suns rays end up hitting the region obliquely, thus causing less solar heat. Here are the temperatures of the Tundra in general: Average January temperature: -32.1 degrees Celsius Average July temperature: +4.1 degrees Celsius Temperature range: 36.2 degrees Celsius Average annual temperature: -17 degrees Celsius Lowest temperature recorded: -52.5 degrees Celsius Highest temperature recorded: +18.3 degrees Celsius After seeing these temperatures you can see the reason why barely anyone lives up there and why there is rather little natural vegetation. Seasons And Moisture Content The main seasons of the Tundra are summer and winter. The winter will last 8 to 10 months followed by the short and much less cold summer. During the summer some lower areas of the Tundra will defrost at which point most of the flora and fauna will start to creep out of hiding. The few summer months are used by many animals such as the polar bear, to mate and to prepare for the once again oncoming winter. During the winter months most everything remains frozen. Many of the animals migrate south for the winter whereas some stay behind or even group together for ritual group suicide (lemmings). There is little precipitation all year long in the Tundra. The average yearly total is 136 mm, out of which 83.

The Women of the Aeneid

The Roman epic of Virgil's Aeneid describes the hardship and misadventures of Aeneas and the Trojans quest from Troy to Italy. Like Homer’s famous epics, the Iliad and Odyssey, Virgil’s narrative style and structure portrays similar attributes in the finding of Rome. Aeneas encounters several women on his journey who play a significant role throughout this epic in assisting or destroying his journey to Rome. His representation of female characters provides the readers with a better understanding of gender politics and reasons why some female leaders failed.Each of Virgil's female characters demonstrates a combination of traits throughout the epic; however, such behaviors of these women tend to develop unwanted conflict due to emotions. Like in every great story the female characters tend to have a enormous influence on the main character in both positive and negative ways. The first female that Virgil introduces is Dido, the queen of Carthage, in Book I of the Aeneid. V irgil provides evidence that Dido is a strong and powerful leader. â€Å"In her stride she seems the tallest, taller by a head than any At the door†¦Of the goddess' shrine, under the temple dome, All hedged about with guards on her high throne, She took her seat. â€Å". This statement illustrates just how supreme and crucial she is. Virgil portrays Dido with a goddess type of image. Not only did she rule Carthage with a strong hold, but she also provided fairness and equality. â€Å"Then she began to give them Judgments and rulings, to apportion work With fairness, or assign some tasks by lot†. This quote certainly demonstrates Dido’s type of rulership.Even though, she is commanding the people of Carthage to do their duties, which provides evidence that she is feared because the people do as she says without questioning her demands; she distributes the work evenly and fair throughout the citizens. Usually people would assume that the men go to the king for help or advice, but ironically, the men of Troy, leaded by Aeneas, were taken to Queen Dido for help. â€Å"When suddenly Aeneas saw approaching, Accompanied by a crowd, Antheus and Sergestus And brave Cloanthus,1 with a few companions†¦He was astounded, and Achates too Felt thrilled by joy and fear:† I feel as though Aeneas and his men did not know what to expect when they came forward to Queen Dido. They were nervous of what was going to happen. Until Dido laid eyes on Aeneas. In every great epic, love plays a key role in bringing people together but also destroying plenty in its way. Even though Dido is characterized as this powerful leader, she slowly starts to fall as her passion for Aeneas starts to grow.As Aeneas tells his story to all the people, Dido slowly starts falling more and more in love with Aeneas. Throughout this Book you slowly start to see the demise of Queen Dido. â€Å"Towers, half-built, rose no farther; men no longer trained in arms†¦ Projects w ere broken off, laid over, and the menacing huge walls with cranes unmoving stood against the sky†. Virgil provides images of how Carthage is being affected by the downfall of Queen Dido. Dido is so infatuated with love that she cannot see how she is running Carthage to the ground for the love of Aeneas.The goddess Juno, the queen of gods, saw this as an opportunity to keep Aeneas from reaching Italy. Dido even broke her vow of chastity and surrenders to her desires for Aeneas. â€Å"Dido had no further qualms as to impressions given and set abroad; She thought no longer of a secret love but called it marriage†. This statement demonstrates how she is becoming weak-minded. She is starting to trick her mind into making something that she knows is not moral in her eyes, into something that seems right. Only to find out that she will regret it in the end.When Mercury, the messenger god, reminds Aeneas that his destiny is not in Carthage and that he must leave for Italy imme diately, Aeneas is not too excited to leave Dido, but he knows he has to obey. Dido at first was furious and cursed Aeneas, â€Å"Midway at sea you’ll drink your punishment and call and call on Dido’s name!†¦ and when cold death has parted.. you will pay for this! †. As soon as Dido realizes that he is gone forever, her emotions transform from furious to depressed and lost. She decided to make an impulsive decision and goes to the extreme of commits suicide.The title for Book IV tells it all â€Å"The Passion of the Queen,†. Queen Dido was supposedly known for being this powerful, supreme, strong minded leader, but her passion for Aeneas turned her soft. She put her responsibilities before love and did not see that Aeneas did the complete opposite. He loved her but he knew what he had to do. I feel as though her importance in the epic was just a distraction for Aeneas to reach his goal. Book XI, Virgil presents another female character that holds pow er like Queen Dido. Camilla, the warrior queen of the Volscians, who just joined the Latins to provided assistance in the war with the Trojans.Camilla shows a lot of strong, composed, and leadership like qualities just like Dido in Book I. Vergil’s epic portrays Camilla’s true powers and strength, â€Å"Amid the carnage, like an Amazon, Camilla rode exultant, one breast bared for fighting ease, her quiver at her back, At times she flung slim javelins thick and fast, At times, tireless, caught up her two-edged axe†. Unlike Dido, Camilla is does not seek love or passion, she is aware of what her duties are and acknowledges that she has to complete such duties. Camilla remains powerful because she has no distractions.Before Aeneas came into Dido life, she had full control on Carthage and all her focus was placed on that; therefore, her land thrives under her leadership. However as soon as she encounters Aeneas, she becomes distracted and slowly starts to lose her c ommanding hand on Carthage. But no one is perfect. Camilla is given this pure and righteous image by Virgil until she also gets distracted. After slaughtering many opponents with her javelin and axes, Camilla’s eyes get caught onto this one Tuscan warrior named Arruns and was left dumbfounded. Camilla Began to track this man, her heart's desire Either to fit luxurious Trojan gear On a temple door, or else herself to flaunt That golden plunder Blindly, as a huntress, following him†¦ she rode on through a whole scattered squadron, recklessly, in a girl's love of finery†. As soon as Camilla laid eyes on this stunning man, her whole mindset changed. Arruns notices and takes advantage of the situation and slays her immediately. Both females were killed by love and lust. Another female that had a huge impact on Virgil’s Aeneid was Juno, the queen of gods.Juno despises the Trojans because of Paris’s judgment against her in a beauty contest. She is also an ad vocate of Carthage, â€Å"And Juno, we are told, cared more for Carthage Than for any walled city of the earth,† and knows that Aeneas’s descendants are destined to destroy Carthage. â€Å"But she had heard long since That generations born of Trojan blood Would one day overthrow her Tyrian walls, And from that blood a race would come in time†. This causes hatred in Juno towards both Aeneas and the Trojans.Throughout Aeneas’s journey, Juno releases her anger on him to make his quest more of a challenge. Juno was the cause of the storm in the beginning of Book I because she summoned Aeolus, the god of winds, to cause an enormous storm while Aeneas was at sea. Vergil provides example of Juno being a manipulative, grudge holding, evil Goddess. In order to stop Aeneas quest to Italy, Juno uses the love Aeneas has towards Dido to her advantage. Juno came up with a scheme to convince Venus to get Aeneas and Dido alone so they can marry and the Trojans and the Ty rians would inally be at peace, even though that was not her true intention. â€Å"Aeneas and Dido in her misery, plan hunting in the forest†¦ My gift will be a black rain cloud and hail†¦ As Dido and the Trojan captain come to one same cavern†¦ There I shall marry them and call his her, a wedding, this will be†. That plan failed when Jupiter found out of such horrid behavior and sent Mercury, the messenger god, to remind Aeneas of his true mission. The goal was to keep the idea of him leaving Carthage a secret from Queen Dido, but she eventually finds out.These get Juno even more furious towards Aeneas and his Trojan men, but she does not give up with her plans to halt Aeneas quest. In Book VII, Juno instructs Allecto, one of the Furies, to create a civil war between the Trojans and the Latins. â€Å"You can arm For combat brothers of one soul between them, Twist homes with hatred, bring your whips inside Or firebrands of death. A thousand names Belong to you , a thousand ways of wounding. † This statement demonstrates how badly she wants to end the Trojan empire and see Aeneas fail.The importance of Juno’s role in Virgil’s epic is that she is Aeneas mortal enemy and will do anything to stop him in his path. Not only does she dislike Aeneas but anyone that is from the Trojan descent. Virgil’s representation of female characters provides the readers with a better understanding of gender politics and reasons why some female leaders failed. Each of Virgil's female characters demonstrates a combination of traits throughout the epic; however, such behaviors of these women tend to develop unwanted conflict due to emotions.Dido was so possessed on the idea of her and Aeneas falling in love, that she did not see how she was burning her city, Carthage to the ground. Camilla, drowned in lust as she laid her eyes on Arrun, causing her to put her guard down and effectively getting killed. Juno is so blinded by hatred towar ds Aeneas and the Trojans, that she makes it her mission to delay his journey. Virgil demonstrates how a female ruler brings too much emotions with her ruling, while a male ruler can run things smoothly without any distractions.

James Dyson A biography Essay Example

James Dyson A biography Essay Example James Dyson A biography Paper James Dyson A biography Paper Dyson ltd is a single man-made business; its’ founder and sole owner is James Dyson. He was born in 1947 and was brought up in the rural town of Norfolk. Both parents worked as teachers, James was expected to follow along his parents’ footsteps and become an academic however he chose to explore and identify his own path; that path led him to become the engineer he is today. He started his higher learning journey pursuing art at the Byam Shaw Art School in London. That journey soon came to a halt as the entrepreneur surrendered to his growing interest in design. This step led him to study at the Royal College of Art where he found his calling. He explored his passion for design under the mentorship of fellow Jeremy Fry whom encouraged the entrepreneur by allowing him to develop his design and engineering skills. It was also here that James found companionship with his art teacher Deirdre Hindmarsh whom he married in 1968. Still a student, James alongside Jeremy Fry developed several inventions. Most notable of which are the Sea Truck and Ball Barrow. Dyson operations Dyson ltd was established in 1992 and it manufactures some of the most innovative electrical home appliances. The first and major product was the Dyson DC01 vacuum cleaner. Dyson has a wide range of products, from vacuum cleaners to washing machines to dryers and heaters. However, vacuum cleaners are the company’s star product. According to The Guardian, in 2010 Dyson had a 40% share of the vacuum cleaners’ market (Finch, 2010) 1. Perseverance amidst setbacks However, the path to success was not an easy one. It took many years and 5,127 prototypes for James to get the product right (Chaey et al., 2011) 2. When James finally had the finished product, his primary intention was to licence the product to other companies with big names. He met with many executives from companies such as Black Decker and Hoover but sadly his attempts to license the product failed time after time. James believed in the technology behind his vacuum cleaner and was determined to put the product on the market. James’ big break perhaps came when he was able to license his product in Japan under the product name of G-Force. This provided James with a push and made him more determined to put his product in the UK market. Not only that, but the returns on the license in the form of royalties are what enabled him to manufacture and sell the product in the UK (Dyson, 2012) 3. James’ vision of a â€Å"vacuum revolution† was in sight (Dyson, 2011) 4. Years of testing, product development and failed licensing attempts would have been enough to deter the average person from carrying on with their vision and their dream. Evidently, that was not the case with James Dyson as all these factors proved to become fruitful. Hoover was one of the companies that turned James down thinking that a bagless vacuum cleaner would not sell. Quite cynically, it was also Hoover that was sued by Dyson for infringement of its patent rights in 1999 after Hoover brought out the Triple Vortex model (Carruthers, 2007) 5. Childhood events foster entrepreneurialism Being an engineer, James has a keen eye for design and a mind that likes to challenge the way things work. He is always interested in producing something that is better and more efficient. That combined with the aggravation of having to settle for conventional goods are the internal driving forces that led him to set up Dyson ltd. However, his success cannot only be attributed to the factors mentioned. It was the financial and emotional support of his wife Deirdre that allowed him to persevere and dedicate himself to building what now is a hugely successful business. James lost his father at the age of 9; in an interview with Beard, he reveals that having suffered that loss made him feel very different and unusual, subsequently that created the need for him to prove himself (Beard, 2012). His determination is also drawn from his favourite sport; long distance running. Growing up, he was always keen on taking a challenge. James believes that what a person may lack in talent he may make up for in determination. In his autobiography, he shares that he was good at this sport not because he was physically fit but because he was more determined than others (Dyson, 2012) 7. James Dyson was able to create success because he has the building blocks of an entrepreneur as well as a solid support system around him. James was able to achieve personal success by setting up Dyson ltd, he was also able to achieve financial success as the Sunday Times placed him on their rich list with a fortune worth  1. 45bn (Sunday times, 2011) . His traits of determination, innovation, perseverance and risk taking allowed him to make a success of himself. Nonetheless, it is without a doubt that James would not have been able to reach his position if it weren’t for extrinsic factors. Working under the mentorship of Jeremy Fry allowed him to explore engineering and design. The unwavering support of his wife Deirdre also allowed him to focus on his goals and believe in his ideas.

5 Differences Between Spanish and English Object Pronouns

5 Differences Between Spanish and English Object Pronouns Because both are Indo-European languages, the grammars of Spanish and English are quite similar. Even so, grammatical differences between the two languages abound. Among them is the way that object pronouns are treated. Here are five ways that Spanish deals with object pronouns in ways that might not seem familiar to English speakers: Direct vs. Indirect Pronouns In the third person, Spanish distinguishes between direct and indirect object pronouns. The English third-person object pronouns are him, her and it in the singular and them in the plural, and the same words are used whether the object is direct or indirect. (In the simplest sense, although the distinctions dont always line up in the two languages, a direct object is one that is acted upon by a verb, while an indirect object is one affected by a verbs action even though the action is directed at someone or something else.) But in standard Spanish (exceptions are explained in our lesson on leà ­smo), the pronouns are distinguished like this: Singular direct objects: lo (masculine), la (feminine).Plural direct object: los (masculine), las (feminine).Singular indirect object: le.Plural indirect object: les. So while the simple English sentences I found her and I sent her a letter use the same pronoun her, a distinction is made in Spanish. The first sentence would be La encontrà ©, where la is a direct object, while the second would be Le mandà © una carta with le being the indirect object. (Letter or carta is the direct object.) Attaching Pronouns to Verbs In Spanish, object pronouns can be attached to some verbs. The pronouns can be attached to three verb forms: infinitives, gerunds and affirmative commands. The pronoun is written as part of the verb, and sometimes a written accent is needed to maintain the correct pronunciation. Here is an example of each of the verb types with an attached pronoun: Infinitive: Voy a amarte por siempre. (Im going to love you forever.)Gerund: Seguà ­an mirndonos. (They kept on looking at us.)Command:  ¡Cllate! (You shut up!) Different Distinctions The distinction between direct and indirect objects is different in the two languages. Taking note of which verbs require the use of le or les would be beyond the scope of this lesson. But it can be said that many Spanish verbs use the indirect-object pronoun where the pronoun in English would be viewed as a direct object. For example, in the sentence Le pidieron su direccià ³n (They asked him for his address), le is an indirect object. But in English, him would be viewed as a direct object because he was the one who was asked. The same is true in Le pegà ³ en la cabeza (They hit him in the head). Using Pronouns Redundantly It is common in Spanish to use an object pronoun even when the noun represented by the pronoun is explicitly stated. Such a redundant use of the pronoun often occurs when the object is named and appears before the verb: A Chris  le gusta escuchar mà ºsica. (Chris likes listening to music. See more in the lesson on gustar.)Toda la ropa la tenemos en descuento. (We have all the clothing on sale.) Note that the redundant pronoun isnt translated to English. The pronoun also is used redundantly in some cases to add emphasis, or often because thats what sounds right to native speakers even if such use isnt mandatory: Lo conocemos bien a este seà ±or. (We know this man well.)Le dieron un regalo a la nià ±a. (They gave a present to the girl.) Using Pronouns Alone Instead of In Phrases Spanish sometimes uses an indirect object pronoun where English would use a phrase. In English we often indicate who or what was affected by a verbs action with phrases such as for me or to him. In Spanish, it may not be necessary to make a phrase. The case where doing so sounds most unfamiliar may be with the verb ser (to be). For example, in Spanish you could say No me es posible for It is not possible for me. But similar constructions are possible with other verbs as well. For example, Le robaron el dinero means They stole the money from him or They stole the money from her.

Consequentialist theory of punishment Essay Example

Consequentialist theory of punishment Essay Example Consequentialist theory of punishment Essay Consequentialist theory of punishment Essay This essay is going to concentrate on the second type of modified consequentialism: Societal Defence. The underlying problems produced by the consequentialist theory of punishment have proven short-lived within the modified theories of consequentialism. The pure consequentialist theory provides four main concepts in which it acts to punish an individual who has committed a crime. The concepts cover incapacitation, deterrence, reform and rehabilitation. According to the modified consequentialist theory, punishment is used as a deterrent upon the individuals use of threats or physical force in defence of her/himself or others1. Farrells describes this idea that punishment is essentially a matter of self-defense2. The discussion in the section concentrates on the fact that threats of harm is used as a deterrent, and the possible consequences of severe punishment are inevitable if it is disregarded. Relating back to the question, we can see that even though there are problems within the pure consequentialist theory of punishment. The modified theories have not ascertained the extent of the problems, which it needs to be adhered to. Presently we can see that the pure theory has the main concepts (as seen above) that it uses in order to punish an individual. By using these forms of punishment it has not been able to proportion the severity of crime in relation to the crime itself. By deterring future crimes it was not able to sustain the original concept of why it was formed. Its original aim which was to deter future crimes had a minimal effect as some forms of punishment were failing. Rehabilitation is a form used that has raised many criticism as to its effectiveness. Martinsons view clearly demonstrates this, with a few isolated exceptions, the rehabilitative efforts that have been reported so far had no appreciable effect on recidivism3. There has been little change in criminals re-offending again as the rehabilitation process does not seem to operate as it should in minimising re-offending behaviour. Originally established to cure the individual and reinstate them back into society. It has been scrutinised as it only concentrates on the individual and does not consider external factors like their background and social standing. Punishment should be in the form of inflicting the individual not helping the individual to overcome his unmoral sub-standard in society. This in turn did not give adequate punishment to offenders who deserved proportionate sentencing. An offender does not merely require to be adjusted to conform back into society, but also needs to have appropriate sentences given to them which they deserve. The rehabilitation process has proven to be unsuccessful time and time again, and in return crime rates have increased instead of declining4. The pure theory has no doubted failed to uphold its purpose in preventing offenders from committing crimes. This seems to be one of its biggest downfalls in relation to the prevention of crime. The consequentialist approach does try to intervene on this issue by adjusting its approach in concentrating punishment solely on the offender, by redirecting pain to fall on the offender. It still does not completely remove the issue of being proportionate to the crime committed. Farrells concentrates on deterring the individual defensively and not by using them as an example to society. Originally deterrence was a means to prevent offenders from re-offending, but by the offenders being guinea pigs their sentence was not proportionate to their offence. The public is perceived not to commit a crime if the sentence is extremely harsh, as explained by Clarkson: The punishment of the offender is aimed at the public at large in the hope that the example and threat of punishment will deter them from crime5 From this we can see that individuals are being treated unfairly as they receive disproportionate sentences for the crime they have committed. This theory of deterrence has shown to be unsuccessful as it does not justify the sentences essentially being handed out. Individuals in this sense are normal citizens who up-hold the law and abide by it. The offenders are criminals intent on causing harm and disturbing the peace. Farrell tries to modify this theory by raising the issue of self-defence in relation to deterring an offender. In order to deter an offender, threats of harm has to be posed at them. Before the offender can commit an offence aimed at the individual there has to be communication of a threat, of what will occur if that offender continues his offensive act. The state is removed from this notion of deterrence and the weight is shifted to the individual. The individual has to communicate an effective threat or warning to the offender if they are seen to possibly commit an offence upon them. For the threat to be perceived to be valid the individual must act on his threat, otherwise the credibility of the threat proves to be invalid. In other words the proposed victim threatens the attacker, as the attacker ignores the threat the victim must carry out the original threat made and impose it on the attacker. This theory differs greatly from the pure consequentialist theory of punishment as it is the individual who acts in self-defence before an offence upon them, and not the state in relation to an offence that has occurred after-wards. Farrells consideration of deterrence in this matter means that it acts more justifiably. Compared with the original deterrence concept, where there was no proportionality in relation to the crime committed and sentence received. The offender according to Farrell, essentially knows the outcome of his actions and can perceive the threat fully. By knowing what they will receive in committing the particular act, means that distributive justice is more apparent in this context. He shows us this by saying: self-defense is typically a matter of the distribution (or redistribution) of harm, or of the probability of harm, and hence that the justification of self-defense must at some level involve, even if only implicitly, an appeal to considerations of distributive justice6 This theory evidently makes the offender aware of the out-come and unlike the pure theory gives them a proportionate punishment. Another issue which this theory aims to rectify is that it tries to place the burden of evil on the offender. This new concept provides the offender to rethink his actions much more clearly. Crimes usually happen without any coherent thought. This provides the offender to be controlled in a way as he is made much more aware that there is a definite retaliation measure in force if they proceed with the offence. Before it was a matter for the criminal to be apprehended, as they would think that there is a chance they will not get caught. This on the other hand provides a definite course of action by the individual, making it clear that retaliation will take place by providing the threat. According to Farrell this places the burden of evil on the perpetrator making it less desirable to commit the offence. Ultimately Farrell does this by ensuring appropriate proportionality is sustained throughout the handing out of threats used. Maintaining a thorough degree of proportionality was the main problem in the pure theory of consequentialist punishment. Farrell sees to this by maintaining a balance of the threat used to keep the offender from committing the offence. He does this with the use of limits, in that a certain level of threat is used in proportion to the offence about to being occurred. He says: limit depends entirely on the contingent features of each case: as long as one does not threaten in order to deter the relevant harm, one has not threatened too much7 By this he means that in order to deter someone from committing a certain offence a certain degree of threat should be used in proportion to it. One cannot threaten someone who is about to steal for example with death as it will not be appropriate or proportionate. A justification of enforcing that threat also needs to be paid attention to as a threat not undertaken will lead the offender in thinking that the proposed victim is merely trying to call his bluff. Not enforcing a threat can mean continuous re-offending by the perpetrator who will just ignore all threats made and continue with their offence. An enforcement of a threat needs to be justified in the first instance, as a threat to take someones life if they try and kill you is a threat none the less. A failed attempt by the offender would mean carrying out the threat and the problem arisen here is if it is justified to carry out the threat. This poses a problem within this theory as self-defence would mean literally that, which you should defend yourself. By using a threat to deter an offender, in stating for example that you will kill him if he tries to kill you. This would mean that if the offender tries to kill you but fails, is it justifiable to proceed with your original threat of killing that individual. Here lies the problem of how far self-defence can proceed, in order to protect oneself, one may have to kill to preserve their life. Explained more coherently by Montague he provides: Aggressor is the only one who can prevent himself from being killed by victim, and he can do so only by killing victim; and aggressor can kill victim without killing anyone else8 Here the explanation is that the victim can fight back but the aggressor has no right in the first instance to cause harm to the victim. Thus going back to Farrells theory that in order for threats to prevail one must see to it that they uphold their threat and complete it. Farrells concept of an automated retaliation device only goes so far in causing as much harm as was intended by the offender to cause. This itself causes problems as to the extent of exercising an individuals power. It is impossible to assess limits imposed on an offender given to by an individual. The law cannot control the extent of harm that is going to be caused by the individual to the offender. If the individual carries on his threat in retaliation to an attack and kills, the question of whether or not he/she is liable to that particular offence arises. We can see that even though the pure consequentialist theory of punishment has its fair share of problems, theorists still find it hard to overcome this. By showing that rehabilitation has proven cumbersome in that it has failed to prevent offenders from re-offending. It has nonetheless tried to reform the individual without proving successful. Offenders are re-offending without taking heed to the fact that it is a form of punishment that should be taken more seriously. More external factors should be taken into account when trying to rehabilitate the offender as it is the persons social background as well as themselves that need to be paid attention to. From the deterrence point of view we have noted flaws in that system also. By handing out severe sentences there has been an increase in crime. As offenders tend to effectively weaken the system by taking advantage of the fact that others are handed out disproportionate sentences and they are not. There is an increase of what seems to be inhumane in relation to this. Rights of offenders are being infringed as they are not being treated fairly. Even though crime has been committed and sentencing has been passed it is not proportionate to their overall crime. Theorists have tried to overcome this issue by suggesting that alternative methods of deterrence should be used but this still does not address the complete issues and flaws within the system. By using forms of threats it is difficult to ascertain the level needed in proportion to deter an offender from offending. Farrell has tried to overcome the issue of deterrence. He has not done this successfully as more problems have arisen within his own theory. The problem of the amount of threat or warning that a person needs to convey cannot be justified fully, as the person also needs to carry out their threat. The use of a automated retaliation device theory in itself was trying to cover the problem of proportionate punishment. Farrell did accomplish this to the extent that there needed to be a proportion of punishment in relation to a crime committed. Punishing the offender no more than was necessary according to the crime, meant that proportionality was restored. This increased the other then problems of justifying the distribution of harm, which was a threat initially, meant that a person had to see it through. To conclude we can see that theories of consequentialism have failed to overcome the enduring problems created by the pure consequentialist theory of punishment. The problems of pure consequentialist theory have been in some aspects been able to be resolved by theorists. This has not meant that all of the theory has been resolved, there has now been an addition of more problems within the new theories themselves. The enforceability of deterring attackers and using a much more enhanced way of self-defence has meant that there could be a thin line between criminals and citizens. In that someones perception of an attack will be different for each individual. Some individuals will essentially take an offender (who in the future) attacking them, may perceive an assault to be one that requires the person to be put to death. In this example there is no real way to assess the amount of punishment which is sufficient to deter an attacker through the use of a threat.